Chapter+Six+-+Qualitative+Research+Designs

=Qualitative Research=

The purpose of this chapter is to provide a discussion of various approaches to qualitative research. As with the previous chapter on quantitative research designs, each approach should address specific aspects of sampling and data collection. In addition, a mention should be made of suggested methods of data analysis based on the type of data that is collected.

I. An Overview
Qualitative research attempts to tell a story about the setting in which the data was collected, the characters who provided the information that was used as data, and a plot which describes the social interaction of the characters. Most of the data gathered in qualitative studies comes from observation and interview. In general, qualitative research designs using grounded theory involve: a focus or topic that is descriptive of some process or interaction; a design that emerges as the data is collected and analyzed; purposive sampling and generally small samples (in comparison to most quantitative designs); the participant’s context; and, a thick description or narrative of the results (i.e. “the story”) regarding the process. This design involves categorical variables, such as gender or race. The independent variable(s) of a study is (are) usually categorical.

Qualitative research involves coding and pattern seeking with the use of graphs, video, audio, and text. Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which deals with numbers. Qualitative research is less prescribed than statistical analysis. It uses theory, models, constructs, and sometimes metaphors. The challenge of qualitative data is being able to extract meaning from the data collection. There are several software programs that have been developed to interpret qualitative data to enhance understanding. Two of those software programs are SPSS and SAS (Suter, 318). Qualitative research relies on reasons behind various aspects of behavior. It asks the why and how questions of decision making, therefore the sample size should be small and focused. Qualitative research relies on four things: 1. participation in the setting, 2. direct observation, 3. in-depth interviews 4. analysis of documents and materials (Wikipedia). Qualitative research operates more on personal level with people by using interviews and speaking with them personally as well as using a smaller sample size. Qualitative studies that are well-designed include a clear description of who will be involved, proper choice of methodology, justification of who was and was not included, and some discussion of the effect of drop outs and non-responders.

Qualitative research gives you an in depth look at the study. It works well with quantitative research because it tells the conditions of the study. Putting a qualitative part can only enhance the quality and depth of your research. Qualitative research provides contextual information that enhances understanding of quantitative research. When combined, a more complete picture of the research project is presented.

II. Ethnographic studies
An ethnographic study is a non-experimental research design that is based on observing a certain group over a period of time. Ethnographic researchers need to observe a group in their own environment rather than in a formal research setting. Researchers obtain a deep understanding of a certain group and how they make sense of the world by being part of it. Ethnographic studies are commonly associated with studies of indigenous peoples. For any researcher who wants to understand the way a culture sharing group of individuals thinks or behaves, they may choose to use ethnographic research. Because of this, ethnographic research has been associated with the study of anthroplogy, and in those situations where the researcher observes - or becomes part of - the group whose culture or sociology are described. Researchers often do this to learn about a group's social network or to learn more about a culture. A culture sharing group may not be sharing the same culture in the traditional sense of the word ‘culture’. It may be a group of people who are in the same cooking class or who work at the same university. With ethnographic research, the researcher attempts to obtain information about what sets that particular group apart or what makes them different from everyone else. The researcher will want to observe the identifying factors of the group such as language, beliefs, and behaviors. The researcher will want to become a part of the group in order to study it in its most natural forms. The researcher will want to find information on the group before attempting to infiltrate it, to avoid making any mistakes and to have a basic understanding of the way the group works. An important part of ethnography is the ability to become ‘invisible’. The researcher needs to to become such a fixture amongst the group so that the members no longer recognize the researcher as really being there. This way, the researcher will be able to obtain the most authentic information from the group. Ethnographic researchers, like many other researchers, may ask different questions. For example, they may ask, “What is it like to teach in a high school that has many students with behavioral problems?” (Suter, 318).

When educational ethnographies are published, they show the great amount of detail that was used to carry them out. They are usually in narrative form and many times, a metaphor or story is used instead of a chart or graph to explain the findings. Examples of these studies can be found in many journals including //American Educational Research Journal// and //Qualitative Studies in Education// (Suter, 319). An example of this type of study is also presented on p. 320 of Suter. McNulty (2003) wanted to know the life stories of adults who had been diagnosed with dyslexia as a child, so he decided that open-ended questions would be the best way to gather information on these individuals. This design helped McNulty make many discoveries about the lives of those with dyslexia.

III. Action Research
Action research is conducted by practitioners in applied fields (teaching, counseling, etc.) for the purpose of solving a specific problem (153). It is a "hands on" approach to conducting research. The results gathered can aid in helping to make better decisions in the school, classroom, or school district. As this type of research aids in helping with professional development, teachers can use this research to reflect on their practice and understand it more deeply (153). There are five steps in the action research process: 1) problem formulation, 2) data collection, 3) data analysis, 4) reporting results for consistency, and 5) action planning (Suter, 2006 p .154). Problem formulation, the first of the five steps, involves identifying the problem and then transforming it into a research question. Data collection, the second of the five steps, is important in the determining factor of credibility. There should be multiple types of data collected, qualitative and quantitative, and as the data is analyzed there may be a need for more data or data from different sources. Researchers conduct data analysis, which is third of the five steps, to identify patterns in the collected data and to discover possible conclusions.  Teachers performing action research can use computer software to help with the data analysis. The software on the computer can help analyze data, and present findings (Suter, 2006). Reporting results for consistency gives educators a chance to collaborate and share what they have learned, and is the fourth step. Finally, the fifth step which is action planning and involves translating the findings into ideas for planning and implementing improvement (155). Most often, teachers will go through this process in order to determine whether implemented programs or teaching methods are effective.

Action research in education has become more popular as teachers take ownership of their classrooms by deciding to not have someone else tell them what they should be doing. Teachers are also interested because they feel much of the research that has been conducted is not always relevant to what's going on in the classroom. Practicing teachers are often the professionals who understand exactly what needs to be researched and why it needs to be researched. Current research does not always address teacher questions, and it is often difficult to comprehend the findings of the research. Applying educational research findings to the everyday classroom is a tedious process. Will the research findings apply to all students? Will the research still be successful if it is inconsistent? How will educators replicate the methodology when the real-life classroom environment is so different from the research study's environment? Action research gives teachers the opportunity to seek answers for these questions.

There are many benefits for the teacher conducting the research in the classroom. Since the teacher is looking to address a specific problem in attempting to improve the situation, whether it be with student achievement, motivation, behavior, or in the ways you present materials and conduct the class, he/she is taking a personal interest in the research. Because it is difficult to find and apply educational research to your own class of students, it is now acceptable for teachers in the field to conduct their own research and make the research relevant to themselves and their own personal classroom. Conducting an action research helps a person grow as a professional because they are working with colleagues, reflecting on their practices, sharing their discoveries with others, and building their knowledge base. In addition, it is fulfilling to see a concept that is being tested work out successfully. A great benefit of this type of research is that any grade level or area of education can be used. As the teacher in the classroom, one should reflect on what is happening in the room with students or with their teaching style by asking, "What is occurring, is it effective?" and, "If it is not, what can be done to change it?" (ppt 5.2). An example of an action research project would be to look at the impact of using a specific intervention in the classroom. As a response to a certain problem (lack of attention during history), a teacher could develop a project based on an intervention they would like to try. The results would demonstrate how effective the intervention was and the student response.

In action research, the researchers control their study by using methods that enhance the usefulness of their research and enable practical applications of their findings. The researchers are less concerned with broad, generalized statements about cause than quantitative researchers are. Because of that, many of the techniques that quantitative researchers use - such as randomization and blinding - are less important to action researchers. A lot of action research is participatory and, thus, qualitative in nature. This suggests the need for strategies that assure action researchers' subjectivity does not threaten any part of the credibility of their research. Action research is ultimately concerned with improving practice. Therefore, issues of control become less relevant than the questions that are being posted - such as how to improve school outcomes on a personal level or how to enhance the profession of education (Suter, 2006).

IV. Case Studies
"Case study design is an approach to qualitative research that focuses on the study of a single person or entity using an extensive variety of data" (Suter, p. 321). People who perform case studies are interested in telling a story. There is often detail and insight about extensive processes that interest the reader. People who read case studies find relevant information from the given description. Also, readers are able to look at old problems or concerns in a new manner. "Researchers who use case study designs often find that their research generalizes to the extent that others can use ideas embedded within the descriptions in some other, often personal, context" (Suter, p.321). There are both challenges and values in performing case studies.

Case studies involve research over time that is often used to establish a baseline of behavior, which is especially helpful in psychological and medical research prior to the implementation of an intervention or treatment. Such designs can be a powerful research method; however, the reimplementation of tests or assessments and the length of time needed are extremely vulnerable to extraneous variables.

Many times people learn best from the actions of others. For this reason, Suter adds many examples to the text. One example of a qualitative research case study the author presents is Kauchak and Burbank (2003). This study examines the problem of having too few ethnically diverse teachers in today’s schools. To begin, the researchers studied two minority teachers. The researchers used interviews, work samples, and professional development portfolios from these teachers to aid in the process of developing data. “The researchers realized the value of rich or ‘thick’ qualitative data” (Suter, p. 324). The researchers found that minority teachers have unique backgrounds and experiences that influence them and their teaching attitudes and styles in a variety of ways. Teacher preparatory programs and settings influence minority teachers differently, depending on these unique backgrounds. Suter also states that like many other case studies of this nature, at the end, more questions were raised than answered. The study does, however, present many new avenues for researchers to pursue in the future.

Suter (2006) discusses a qualitative case study conducted by Pierce to make discoveries about the importance of the classroom climate for at-risk learners. The purpose of the study was to describe how one teacher could construct and create a climate that would enhance learning. The extensive variety of data consisted of participant observation, interviews, field notes, archival records, and triangulation (linking observations and conclusions from the teacher, her students, and Pierce herself). The data collected from all these areas is then categorized, analyzed and interpreted. This information can then be used to develop a working hypothesis to explain how this individual teacher and her classroom operates. As the study progresses, this “working” hypothesis may be changed if necessary. Generating a hypothesis in this manner varies greatly from the way quantitative research hypothesis are formed. In quantitative research, the hypothesis is derived from theory and will not change throughout the study.

The case study research method is an empirical inquiry that investigate a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context; when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used (Yin, 1984). Case studies look at a single concept or occurrence and examine it in depth over a long period of time. Why choose a case study? Case studies focus on something that is very specific and attempts to give you a deep understanding about a particular case. Process, event, or person such as, behavior or counseling and how they respond to a specific intervention that occurs within a real life contexts within a natural setting. Again, case studies are in depth studies and the data is usually both qualitative and quantitative that is collected over a period of time, which reflects perspectives of both the participants and the researcher. The disadvantages of case studies would be limited generalizability and ethical problems that may occur which in fact will not allow inferences to be made to a larger population.

V. Other Qualitative designs
Historiography or historical research is another type of qualitative design. Learning from the past can help us to predict present-day problems and create predictions for the future. Historical research can attempt to answer specific questions such as "What is the relationship between how teachers have been portrayed in the media over the past 75 years and trends in teacher shortages?" (Suter, p. 325). Or it can answer questions that appeal to basic curiosity such as, "How did the Civil War interrupt schooling in the South?" (Suter, p. 325). Studying past history brings about challenges to the careful researcher: challenges to sources' authenticity. Primary sources --original documents, records of witnesses, diaries, newspapers, school transcripts are always preferred over secondary sources--documents that are one or more steps removed from the actual events (e.g.) a principal's recollection of attendance data. (Suter, 2006). Studying past history involves collecting data that often spans decades and then carefully analyzing it. Such sources of data are often complex and are threatened by challenges regarding their authenticity. It is also difficult to be accurate in ascribing beliefs and values to those who lived years before, which often limits the ways in which historical research can be generalized. (Suter, 326).

In addition, researchers could use a mixed method design. A mixed method design blends qualitative case studies with quantitative design and analysis (Suter, p. 334). Adding a qualitative element to a study can help researchers gather more information about the question/hypothesis that is being studied. As an example, when studying the attitudes teachers have about teaching math, researchers could give the teachers attitudinal surveys and statistically analyze the data (quantitative), but to find out more information, researchers could interview the teachers and see if any new ideas emerge from the qualitative interview.

According to Busha and Harta (1980), there are six steps involved for conducting historical research. Those steps are: 1) the recognition of a historical problem or the identification of a need for certain historical knowledge, 2) the gathering of as much relevan information about the problem or topic as possible, 3) if appropriate, the forming of hypothesis that tentatively explains relationships between historical factors, 4) The rigorous collection and organization of evidence, and the verification of the authenticity and veracity of information and its sources. the rithe recognition of a historical problem or the identification of a need for certain historical knowledge, 5) The selection, organization, and analysis of the most pertinent collected evidence, and the drawing of conclusions; and 6) the recording of conclusions in a meaningful narrative.

VI. Approaches to Qualitative Data Analysis
Qualitative data analysis generally focuses on qualities rather than quantities. The statistical focus is on pattern seeking and the extraction of meaning from rich, complex sources of linguistic (narrative), or visual (image) data. In qualitative data, much effort is directed towards the creation of categories. Words, symbols, metaphors, vignettes, and an entire array of creative linguistic tools or visual displays may be used instead of "number crunching" like in qualitative data analysis. Many researchers believe that qualitative data is far more challenging, time-consuming, and is a more creative endeavor than quantitative data analysis. Qualitative data analysis is often performed during data collection with emerging interpretations guided by theoretical framework. Qualitative data analysis is far less "linear" and prescribed than the statistical analysis used so commonly in quantitative data analysis. One common goal is to establish the credibility of the qualitative research findings and conclusions. Good qualitative data analysis often yields stimulating conclusions and sometimes affords a new and useful way to view old problems (Suter, 2006).

VII. Summary
Qualitative research uses grounded theory to explore topics while allowing for a hypothesis to emerge. Qualitative research uses one or a mixture of ethnographic studies, action research, case studies, and Historiography. All of these studies share the common theme of observation in some form to conduct the research. The studies may range from a single participant to a group. The qualitative data is often far more complex, more time consuming and requires a more creative approach than quantitative research (Suter, 2006). During data analysis, creating categories of the qualities rather than using numbers to describe the behavior is done. The analysis will bring out the emerging interpretations. Many descriptions and explorations of hypotheses are accomplished best with qualitative approaches to research, including ethnographic designs, case study designs, "blended" or hybrid designs that integrate key features of several descriptive research designs and historical research. Some descriptive-oriented questions in education can be answered by intensive study of a single person (or single group). Such qualitative case studies provide rich, often fascinating data and suggest new areas for research (Suter, 337).